Brothels in Istanbul | A Short History

"...There have been many studies on prostitution and procuring in different periods and places in the Ottoman Empire. Some studies by Edward J. Bristow[*] and Rıfat Bali[**] deal specifically with trade in women in the Ottoman Empire. Covering a time period from1870 to 1939 and a large area from Europe to Asia and America and utilizing mainly German sources, Bristow opens a window to trade in women in the Ottoman Empire and contributes greatly to our understanding of trade in white women from Europe to the Ottoman Empire, especially to Istanbul and from Istanbul to Africa and Asia. As for Rıfat Bali, he provides some examples in his article on the Jewish role in trade in women in Istanbul.

 The information and examples Bristow and Bali provide on what route and ways Jewish traders in women used match with examples of trade in women in Ottoman archival documents. Their studies, especially Bristow’s work, draw a general picture of trade in women in the Ottoman Empire. Examples from Ottoman archival documents can complete the picture.Such is the aim of the present paper, based on an examination of documents from different archive collections – Imperial Edicts (Hatt-ı Hum-ayuns), Ministry of Interior Records ( Dahiliye Nezareti Fonu), Ministryof Foreign Affairs Records (Hariciye Nezareti Fonu), Police Records(Zaptiye Nezareti Fonu), Cevdet Records (Cevdet Fonu) – all preserved in the Ottoman Archives of the Prime Ministry (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri/BOA) in Istanbul, and on a review of the correspondence betweenhigh-level officials and institutions, such as the Ministry of Interior and Foreign Affairs, the Chamber of Deputies, the Ministry of Sects, the Orthodox-Greek Patriarchate, the Chief Rabbinate, the Police Department, governors, and prosecutors in the same archives... Similarly, Reşat Ekrem Koçu,in his article on “police of morals (ahlâk zabıtası)” in sixteenth-century Istanbul, writes that since slavery was legal, traders were selling women as “slaves” to buyers, i.e. sailors, who paid some Akçes as a deposit.Then these buyers were returning the women with the excuse that theywere lame. In this transaction, both sellers and buyers knew that therewould be a return. An archival document dated 1583 points to such an“illegal” form of slave trade and warns officials to pay attention to it.

Basing himself on a record of slaves dated 1640, Yaşar Yücel mentions a similar case in the seventeenth century. He writes that from over100 slave traders, about 19 were involved in the illegal trade of Muslim slaves. They first bought some Muslim female slaves from their owners by the promise to sell them for a much higher price and then sold them to foreigners such as Polish and Moldovan ambassadors. After a while, they received these women back and returned them to their first owners under the excuse that the buyers did not like them.

Besides slave traders who were involved in this “illegal” form of trafficking in women, there were groups of artisans (esnaf ) called esnaf-ızenkahbegan (procurers/ kadın tellalı), who, according to Evliya Çelebi, were 212 in Istanbul in 1633. Of course “legal” slave trade was not the only way of trafficking in women. All these sources underline the fact that trafficking in women mostly took place under the guise of legal slavetrade but fail to show that there were indeed other forms of trafficking in women... Konya, Kayseri, Sivas, Tokat, Kastamonu, Bolu, İzmir, also involved in this trafficking. Documents indicate that in Istanbul as well as in those cities, procurers conducted their business either in their brothels or in some hotels..."

Source: KEZBAN ACAR | PROCURING AND TRAFFICKING IN WOMEN IN THE LATE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

[*] Prostitution and Prejudice: The Jewish Fight Against White Slavery, 1870–1939 by Edward J. Bristow

[**] Bali, Rıfat: The Jews and Prostitution in Constantinople 1854-1922, Istanbul 2008

Mavi Boncuk |

The first established brothels in the Ottoman Empire were established in 1812  during the reign of Mahmut. In 1821, with the worldwide plague epidemic reaching Istanbul, the brothel pattern came in the Ottoman Empire. The people saw the entertainment centers on Melek Girmez Street as the cause of the epidemic. Due to the epidemic, all the taverns on the street were destroyed. Hidayet Mosque was built to make people forget the bad reputation of the street.

With the end of the epidemic, venues serving the union for entertainment were reopened. In 1884, the first official brothel was created by an ordinance.

The Ottoman ruler at that time was Abdülhamit II. The brothel that was opened was located in the Edirnekapı district of Fatih.

The first manager of this brothel was a woman known as Langa Fatma.

Their customers were important people in Istanbul: Aghas, gentlemen, pashas; She used to wait in line at the door of Langa Fatma's brothel.

The women working in the brothel had nicknames such as 'Kartopu Şöhret | Snowball Fame', 'Gümüş gerdan Ülfet | Silver neck Ülfet', 'Vuslat', 'Candayanmaz Zisan', 'Kaymak tabağı Servet | Cream Plate Servet' and 'Ziynet | Trinket'.

After Langa Fatma's death, brothels were closed. Later, brothels were opened in Istanbul again. The state imposes bans but does not listen to prostitution edicts. Unable to cope with illegal brothels any longer, the Ottomans opened the first official brothel in 1884 with an instruction. After a while, the number of brothels in Galata reaches 100. In 1915, it reaches 359.

The first Brothels, known as Umumhane and referred to as "school" in the expression of the youth, were opened in Istanbul towards the end of the 19th century, especially during the Crimean War (1853-1856), in order to meet the basic needs of the soldiers and began to be institutionalized. The brothels, which were opened in Galata and later in Beyoğlu and became very popular, still maintain their places and continue their services, even though they have faced many difficulties today.

The word "kerhane" does not come from "kar-hane", which means "workplace, factory" in Persian. The origin of the word is the Arabic word “kerh”: kerh means “disgust, disgust”. Over time, "haneyi", which means "home" in Persian, was added to the end of Kerh, and it became "kerhhane". The word has become lighter, one of the "h" has fallen, as a result, it has become a "brothel" with its current name. Well, did brothels suddenly appear at the end of the 19th century? Of course no. Until that period, there are various houses that were used for prostitution. However, in these houses, either only one person works, or the places operate temporarily and change places frequently due to the fear of the police. Therefore, they do not maintain their existence as a visible business.

Brothels (official ones) usually congregate on certain streets. Zürefa and Abonoz Street are among the oldest and most historical streets of Istanbul. I think that Zurefa Street, one of the streets still functioning today, should be examined and scrutinized. Zürefa Street, which was put into service during the reign of Abdulhamid  II. , was named Zürafa Street after the proclamation of the Republic.Zürefa means lesbian in Ottoman Turkish. Changing Zürefa to Zürafa (Giraffe) is actually a
mistake. 

Similarly, Reşat Ekrem Koçu,in his article on “police of morals (ahlâk zabıtası)” in sixteenth-century Istanbul, writes that since slavery was legal, traders were selling women as “slaves” to buyers, i.e. sailors, who paid some

Akçes as a deposit.Then these buyers were returning the women with the excuse that they were lame.

In this transaction, both sellers and buyers knew that there would be a return. An archival document dated 1583 points to such an“illegal” form of slave trade and warns officials to pay attention to it.

Basing himself on a record of slaves dated 1640, Yaşar Yücel mentions a similar case in the seventeenth century. He writes that from over100 slave traders, about 19 were involved in the illegal trade of Muslim slaves. They first bought some Muslim female slaves from their owners by the promise to sell them for a much higher price and then sold themto foreigners such as Polish and Moldovan ambassadors. After a while, they received these women back and returned them to their first owners under the excuse that the buyers did not like them.

Besides slave traders who were involved in this “illegal” form of trafficking in women, there were groups of artisans (esnaf ) called esnaf-ızenkahbegan (procurers/ kadın tellalı), who, according to Evliya Çelebi, were 212 in Istanbul in 1633. Of course “legal” slave trade was not the only way of trafficking in women. All these sources underline the fact that trafficking in women mostly took place under the guise of legal slave trade but fail to show that there were indeed other forms of trafficking in women.

brothel (n.) "bawdy house," 1590s, shortened from brothel-house, from brothel "prostitute" (late 15c.), earlier "vile, worthless person" of either sex (14c.), from Old English broðen past participle of breoðan "deteriorate, go to ruin," from Proto-Germanic *breuthan "to be broken up," related to *breutan "to break" (see brittle). In 16c. brothel-house was confused with unrelated bordel (see bordello) and the word shifted meaning from a person to a place.

bordello (n.) c. 1300, bordel "house of prostitution," from Old French bordel "small hut, cabin; brothel" (12c.), diminutive of borde "hut made of planks," from Frankish *bord "wooden board" or some other Germanic source related to board (n.1). The modern form (1590s) is a result of the French word being borrowed by Italian then passed back to French with a suffix and re-borrowed into English also from c. 1300

Great War

  than among non-Muslim ones.

One of the most remarkable attempts of the Ottoman wartime government was the declaration of a new regulation concerning prostitution during the First World War. While this regulation revealed the extent of the problem, it also provided for increased official recognition of brothels. In 1915, the government issued a very detailed regulation on prostitution called The Regulation on the Prevention of the Spread of Venereal Disease. Whereas the previous brothel regulation of 1884 was limited to certain areas of Istanbul such as Beyoğlu, the new regulation embraced all the provincial areas and defined the legal framework along with detailed prescriptions. As is clear from the title of this regulation, the main purpose was to control the spread of venereal diseases. In order to achieve this task, the regulation attempted to subject brothels to stricter state control and register prostitutes while keeping them under medical surveillance. A variety of fines and punishments were issued for those who violated the regulatory measures.

The 1915 regulation begins by defining what a prostitute is: “In return for monetary interest or as a habit, those who are working to meet the pleasures of others by having intercourse with more than one man shall be called prostitutes.” Places that were occupied by or visited by two or more women for the purpose of prostitution were euphemistically called public or common houses. The regulation prescribed that so-called pensions or small hotels used for the same purposes should be called public houses as well. Properties meant to be rented or owned for the purposes of prostitution or procuration were called meeting points, like rendezvous houses, as in the French case. Furthermore, the regulation considered as prostitution different forms previously not identified as such. For instance, streetwalkers were forbidden from wandering around for the purposes of engaging in prostitution, and they had to reside in and be registered at brothels. Mistresses, described in the regulation as women who had intercourse only with one man, had to be kept on the records as well.

 Spatial restrictions were implemented in order to segregate prostitution from society. While the Istanbul districts for brothels (Beyoğlu and Üsküdar) were to be determined by the municipal police department, in the provinces the provincial administrations were in charge of this. This attempt can be interpreted as an effort to eliminate new forms of prostitution, such as the unregistered one, which were more visible and incorporated into daily life. According to the articles of the regulation concerning spatial provisions, brothels could not be opened next to or opposite honorable family households. It was strictly emphasized that brothels should have only one entrance. A door number different from that of regular houses both in size and numerical order was to be hung on that entrance. Prostitutes were not allowed to sit in front of the doors, to present themselves through windows or attract attention by verbal interactions. There had to be shutters to cover the windows of the first floors.

Ottoman non-Muslims and foreign passport holders in the Empire were considered to be the ones who dominated the sex trade. The Capitulations facilitated this trade, as these groups were either exempt or immune from Ottoman law.[5] As early as March 1914, the Ottoman Ministry of Foreign Affairs sent requests to the French, Russian, Italian and Austro-Hungarian embassies asking for special permission to make sanitary visits to the brothels run by the citizens of their countries.[6] The embassies responded positively, under the condition that they be informed of the addresses of these houses and that only doctors should be in charge of the visits. However, only after the unilateral abolition of the Capitulations at the outbreak of the war was the Ottoman government able to finally issue a general regulation to control the brothels and prevent the so-called traffic in white women. Henry Morgenthau (1856-1946), the American ambassador to the Porte, claimed that he led the official prevention action against this traffic, while the Ottoman Finance Minister Reşad Paşa (1849-1927) chaired it and Bedri Bey (1888-?), the Ottoman chief of police, executed it. 

In addition to segregating the location and changing the appearance of brothels, the manner of operation was regulated as well. The 1915 regulation of brothels was no less detailed than those of bureaucratic offices, thus giving the impression of the actual incorporation of prostitution into the body of the state. While the consumption of alcohol with the permission of local authorities was not forbidden, gambling and smoking cannabis were strictly forbidden and brothels who did not comply with these rules were to be closed for an indefinite period of time. Playing music was not allowed after midnight and before that time, it was not to disturb the people living nearby. The music could also be forbidden if it increased competition among both prostitutes and clients and caused fights.

A considerable number of articles were issued on venereal diseases and sanitary measures. As a first condition for preventing diseases, unregistered prostitution was to be eliminated. In Istanbul, the Morals Police was in charge of investigating houses engaging in secret prostitution. In the provinces, the local police was responsible for identifying such houses. Undercover police units were established to investigate illegal brothels and people who encouraged girls, minors and honorable women to take up prostitution. These units would report unregistered prostitutes to the police station, but were not charged with taking measures themselves.

Prostitutes who had venereal diseases were not allowed to work in brothels until they got a health report that was listed on their identity papers. They were to be examined in a hospital and stay there until recovery. The expenses for this healthcare were to be met by the owner of the brothel (ten to twenty piasters per day) either voluntarily or by police force. Medical clinics were to be opened in every district and one or two doctors would be in charge, according to need. A special sanitary commission would be established, composed of policemen and doctors. The doctor in charge of examinations was to be rotated every three months. This can be interpreted as an attempt to prevent emotional interactions or attachments between doctors and prostitutes. The doctors in charge had to report on a weekly basis. In the first stage, the government opened six medical clinics in Istanbul following the regulation’s requirements. In 1915, a new hospital was opened in Yuksek Kaldirim Street for the diagnosis and treatment of venereal diseases. After two years of operation, the hospital was moved from Galata to Sisli, to the Bulgarian School for Boys, which was renovated as a venereal diseases hospital with 600 beds. Before the war Haseki Hospital had operated as venereal diseases hospital with only forty beds.

Despite regulatory attempts, there were 2,171 registered prostitutes in Istanbul, while the total number appeared to be 4,000 to 4,500 based on the data that Turkish Sanitary Bureau provided in 1922. Riggs claimed that the difference between these numbers were due both to underage prostitutes who could not be registered and others who worked in private houses. It should be noted that these numbers correspond to a huge amount in a city with a population of 700,000.

Year       Muslim   Christian

1917       1,416      1,096

1918       1,675      1,166

1919       1,879      1,499

1920       1,785      1,347

Turkish literature during the First World War and in its aftermath is full of stories of moral degeneration and debauchery. However, the occupation of Istanbul by the Allied Powers marked the peak point as the background for these literary works. Inspired by the tragedies of these years, the themes of this literature included assaults against Muslim women by Allied soldiers, the huge economic inequality between rich and poor and catastrophes of Ottoman families. When the Turkish Republic was founded in 1923, repeated attempts were made to rectify the social cost of the war years."

SOURCE: Oğuz, Çiğdem: Prostitution (Ottoman Empire) , in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War, ed. by Ute Daniel, Peter Gatrell, Oliver Janz, Heather Jones, Jennifer Keene, Alan Kramer, and Bill Nasson, issued by Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin 2017-01-31. DOI: 10.15463/ie1418.11038.

According to the research titled 'Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople' (Istanbul, 1920) [1]dated 1922, there were 77 registered brothels in Galata. 28 of them belonged to Greeks, 6 to Armenians, 42 to Jews and 1 to a Hungarian. The nationalities of 662 prostitutes working there are 335 Greeks (28 Greeks and 307 Greeks), 169 Russians, 68 Jews, 47 Armenians, 19 Austrians, 12 Romanians, 4 Italians, 2 Bulgarians, 2 Serbs, 1 American, 1 French, 1 given as German and 1 'African'. it was also stated that 'the number of Russians is probably higher than reported'. registered prostitutes are required to be over the age of eighteen (a certain number of under-eighteen prostitutes are said to be working in unregistered brothels) and there are very few prostitutes over the age of 25. the price ranges from 15 cents in cheap institutions to 1 lira in 'better' places (it starts with 5 liras at the American house in Galatasaray, Acar street -Yankee House). prostitutes take half of the money for themselves, and they are also provided with a room and food and drink.

The research continues: The best houses in Galata are in Şerbethane Sokak. It would be more correct to call those on other streets a barracks. British, French and Italian soldiers and sailors are prohibited from entering this area. Although American sailors are allowed to visit this area, they never or rarely come to this area.

Brothels had to close at 10 pm, and if they were even a few minutes late, they would be fined. brothel owners complained about this and said that the business was opened after this time.

While describing the scene of those years, Özdemir Arkan says, 'Hundreds of naked women warm up around barbecues and take their customers to places that look more like cages than rooms.

Beyzade, Şerbethane and Şeftali streets were demolished in 1956-1958 while the Karaköy square and Kemeraltı street were expanded. In the late 1960s, the majority of prostitutes working in this area were Turkish and the average age was 35.

in Karaköy; There is a brothel in the area bordered by Leblebici Şaban Street, Arşın Street and Kemeraltı Street. The brothel is located right next to the Surp Pırgiç Armenian Church. The buildings next to the church are operated as brothels. In the immediate vicinity of the brothel are Saint-Benoit High School and a synagogue.

Zürafa Street in Karaköy was a district with brothels and there were 42 houses, 37 of which belonged to Manukyan[2] and 5 of which belonged to Sümbül Yaşar Karasu. All of these houses belonged to Sümbül Karasu in the past. Manukyan was a tailor for Sümbül Hanım. She later realized that there is more money in the brothel business and bought the houses one by one from Sümbül Karasu. However, she has never engaged in prostitution, she has always been a brothel operator. Today, there is only only 4 houses on Zürafa Street.

Of the 18 brothels that remained open, six belonged to Yaşar Ceyhan Muniz, and twelve belonged to Neriman Akarsu, nicknamed Hyacinth. Neriman Akarsu had been Turkey's tax record holder many times in the 1980s. When she died in September 2006 at the age of 82, all brothels were closed so that employees could attend the funeral, and it was said that famous figures were present at her funeral.

There were 120 women working in these 18 brothels and they had about 5,000 to 7,000 visitors a day. brothels were closed on Sundays. On May 15, 2009, the closure of this last official brothel district of Beyoğlu was accepted by the Istanbul metropolitan council and it was finally closed on May 20, 2010.”

[1] Constantinople to-day; or, The pathfinder survey of Constantinople; a study in oriental social life by Johnson, Clarence Richard, 1922New York, Macmillan  Clarence Richard Johnson 5 January 1886–6 February 1962

Printed in a Turkish translation

• Publisher ‏ : ‎ Tarih Vakfi; 1st edition (January 1, 2013)
• Language ‏ : ‎ Turkish
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• ISBN-10 ‏ : ‎ 9753330227
• ISBN-13 ‏ : ‎ 978-9753330220

[2] Matild Manukyan: It would not be right to talk about Giraffe Street and ignore Matild Manukyan. Matlid Manukyan, who had 14 brothels in Giraffe Street until her death in 2001, is one of the most important businesswomen of the 20th century. Matlid Manukyan, who was born in 1914, started tailoring after graduating from Notre Dame de Sion high school, and later aiming to earn more money, started to run a brothel in two houses inherited from his father. Manukyan, who concealed his work even from her husband, became a tax record holder countless times. She is a real Brothel Queen. She has been tried many times over and acquitted of all, either with the help of God or her money.

Notes

See Özbek, Müge: The Regulation of Prostitution in Beyoğlu 1875-1915, in: Middle Eastern Studies 46 (2010), pp. 555-568.

Rasim, Ahmed: Eski Fuhuş Hayatı. Fuhş-i Atik [Prostitution in Old Times]. Istanbul 2007, pp. 209f.

Emin (Yalman), Ahmed: Turkey in the World War, New Haven 1930, p. 244.

Bali, Rıfat: The Jews and Prostitution in Constantinople 1854-1922, Istanbul 2008, p. 11.

↑ Wyers, Mark David: “Wicked” Istanbul. The Regulation of Prostitution in the Early Turkish Republic, Istanbul 2012, p. 88.

Emraz-ı Zühreviyenin Men’i Sirayetine Dair Neşr Olunan Nizamnameye Mütealik Talimatname [Regulation on the Prevention of the Spread of Venereal Diseases]. İstanbul 1915. A shortened Turkish translation of the regulation is also available in: Alyot, Halim: Türkiye’de Zabıta. Tarihi Gelişim ve Bugünkü Durum [The City Police in Turkey. Historical Development and Current Situation], Ankara 1947, pp. 570-586. Among the first studies on this subject, see Toprak, Zafer: İstanbul’da Fuhuş ve Salgın Hastalıklar [Prostitution and Epidemic Diseases in Istanbul], in: Tarih ve Toplum 7/39 (1987) pp. 159-168.

Toprak, Zafer: İstanbul’da Fuhuş ve Zührevî Hastalıklar, in: Türkiye’de Kadın Özgürlüğü ve Feminizm (1908-1935) [Women’s Liberation and Feminism in Turkey], İstanbul 2015, p. 138.

Riggs, Charles T.: Adult Delinquency, in: Johnson, Clarence R. (ed.): Constantinople To-Day. A Study in Oriental Social Life or The Pathfinder Survey of Constantinople, New York 1922, p. 364.

 Shaw, Stanford: The Ottoman Empire in World War I, volume I, Ankara 2006, p. 172.

Noyan, Abdülkadir: Son Harplerde Salgın Hastalıklarla Savaşım [My Fight against Epidemic Diseases during the Last Battles] , Ankara 1956, pp. 92f.

Akın, Yiğit: The Ottoman Home Front During the World War I. Everyday Politics, Society and Culture, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Ohio State University 2011, p. 167.

Van Os, Nicole A. N. M.: Taking Care of Soldiers’ Families. The Ottoman State and the Muinsiz Aile Maaşı, in: Zürcher, Erik J. (ed.): Arming the State. Military Conscription in the Middle East and Central Asia, 1775-1925, London 1999, pp. 96f.

Ahmed Emin (Yalman), Turkey in the World War, 1930, p. 239.

Karakışla, Yavuz Selim: Women, War and Work in the Ottoman Empire. Society for the Employment of Ottoman Muslim Women 1916-1923, İstanbul 2005, pp. 168-169.

The society published a report in 1917, see Kadınları Çalıştırma Cemiyet-i İslamiyesi [Society for the Employment of Ottoman Muslim Women], Istanbul 1334, cited in: Sümer, Tülin: Türkiye’de İlk Defa Kurulan Kadınları Çalıştırma Derneği [The First Society for the Employment of Ottoman Muslim Women in Turkey]. in: Belgelerle Türk Tarihi Dergisi, Vol. 10 (1968) p. 61.

Ahmed Emin (Yalman), Turkey in the World War, 1930, p. 236.

For discussions on how Ottoman literature dealt with the theme, see Behar, Cem / Duben, Alan: Istanbul Households: Marriage, Family and Fertility 1880-1940. Westernization and New Family Directions: Cultural Reconstruction, Cambridge 2002, pp. 194-239. Alev Sınar Çılgın gives a review of the works on childhood memories and memoir-novels on World War I period, see Çılgın, Alev Sınar: Savaşın Gerçek Kurbanları: Çocuklar [The Real Victims of the War: Children], in: Savaş Çocukları Öksüzler ve Yetimler [Children at War Orphans], Naskali, Emine Gürsoy / Koç, Aylin (eds.) İstanbul 2003, pp. 347-360.

Selected Bibliography

Akin, Yiğit: The Ottoman home front during World War I. Everyday politics, society, and culture, thesis, Columbus 2011: Ohio State University.

Bali, Rıfat N.: The Jews and prostitution in Constantinople, 1854-1922, Istanbul 2008: Isis Press.

Duben, Alan / Behar, Cem: Istanbul households. Marriage, family and fertility, 1880-1940, Cambridge 2002: Cambridge University Press.

Johnson, Clarence Richard (ed.): Constantinople to-day or, the pathfinder survey of Constantinople. A study in Oriental social life, New York 1922: Macmillan.

Karakışla, Yavuz Selim: Women, war and work in the Ottoman Empire. Society for the employment of Ottoman Muslim women, 1916-1923, Istanbul 2005: Osmanlı Bankası Arşiv ve Araştırma Merkezi.

Orga, İrfan: Portrait of a Turkish family, New York 1950: Macmillan.

Shaw, Stanford J.: The Ottoman Empire in World War I. Prelude to war, volume 1, Ankara 2006: Turkish Historical Society.

Toprak, Zafer: Türkiye'de kadın özgürlüğü ve feminizm, 1908-1935 (Liberation of women in Turkey and feminism, 1908-1935), Istanbul 2015: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları.

Toprak, Zafer: The family, feminism and the state during the Young Turk period, in: Eldem, Edhem (ed.): Première Rencontre internationale sur l'Empire ottoman et la Turquie moderne, Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales, 18-22 janvier 1985, Istanbul 1991: Editions ISIS, pp. 441-452.

Wyers, Mark David: 'Wicked' Istanbul. The regulation of prostitution in the early Turkish republic, Istanbul 2012: Libra Kitapçılık ve Yayıncılık.

Yalman, Ahmet Emin: Turkey in the World War, New Haven; London 1930: Yale University Press; Oxford University Press.