Image of a muleteer and pack mule from ‘The Story of the Salonica Army’ by G. Ward Price (1918). The caption reads: The steep tracks up which all ammunition, supplies and water have to be carried to much of our front line (Official photograph).
Mavi Boncuk |
Serving the empire in the Great War
The Cypriot Mule Corps, imperial loyalty and silenced memory
By Andrekos Varnava[1]
Format: HardcoverISBN: 978-1-5261-0367-3 Pages: 272 Publisher: Manchester University PressPrice: £75.00 Published Date: February 2017
This book contributes to the growing literature on the role of the British non-settler empire in the Great War by exploring the service of the Cypriot Mule Corps[2] on the Salonica Front, and after the war in Constantinople. Varnava encompasses all aspects of the story of the Mule Corps, from the role of the animals to the experiences of the men driving them both during and after the war, as well as how and why this significant story in the history of Cyprus and the British Empire has been forgotten. The book will be of great value to anyone interested in the impact of the Great War upon the British Empire in the Mediterranean, and vice- versa.
CONTENTS
Introduction
1 Historiography and theories
2 British Cyprus, 1878-1918: from backwater to bustling war
base
3 The formation of the Cypriot Mule Corps
4 Mule and muleteer recruitment: pushed or pulled?
5 Contracts, challenges, hardships and the 'liminal space'
6 Conditions for mules and muleteers
7 Muleteer behaviour during service
8 Veterans and their families after service
9 Remembering and forgetting the Cypriot Mule Corps
Conclusion
Select bibliography
Index
[1] Andrekos Varnava is Associate Professor in Imperial and Military History at Flinders University.
Associate Professor Andrekos Varnava, FRHistS, was born (1979) and raised in Melbourne to Cypriot-born parents, obtained his BA(Honours) from Monash University (2001) and his PhD (2006) from the University of Melbourne. He is the author of two books in the Studies in Imperialism Series, Manchester University Press: Serving the Empire in the Great War: The Cypriot Mule Corps, Imperial Loyalty and Silenced Memory (2017) and British Imperialism in Cyprus, 1878-1915: The Inconsequential Possession (2009; paperback 2012). He has edited/co-edited six volumes: The Great War and the British Empire: Culture and Society (Routledge, 2017); Australia and the Great War: Identity, Memory, Mythology (Melbourne University Press, 2016); Imperial Expectations and Realities: El Dorados, Utopias and Dystopias (Manchester University Press, 2015); The Archbishops of Cyprus in the Modern Age: The Changing Role of the Archbishop-Ethnarch, their Identities and Politics (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013); The Minorities of Cyprus: Development Patterns and the Identity of the Internal-Exclusion (Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009); and Reunifying Cyprus: The Annan Plan and Beyond (I.B. Tauris, 2009; paperback 2011). Additionally, he has co-edited a special issue of Itinerario, 38(3), 2014. He has published many book chapters and articles in major journals, including English Historical Review(2017), The Historical Journal(2014), Historical Research(2014 & 2017), War in History(2012, 2015, 2016), Itinerario(2014), Britain and the World(2017) and First World War Studies(2017), with others forthcoming in Journal of Modern History(2018), Social History of Medicine(2019) and Contemporary British History(2020). He previously worked at the European University-Cyprus (Sept 2006-Jan 2009).
andrekos.varnava(at)flinders(dot)edu(dot)au
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See also: THE IDENTITY CONFLICT OF THE CYPRIOTS THE CYPRIOT MULE CORPS IN THE FIRST WORLD WAR by Nur ÇETİNER
PhD student, Boğaziçi University, The Atatürk Institute for Modern Turkish History.
This article was written based on the author’s master thesis at Sabancı University.
Abstract
Cypriot muleteers served in the British army in the Macedonian front during the First World War. Both Cypriot men and island mules were used in the war. Mules were used in the war due to their carrying ability under harsh geographical conditions. The British government utilized the existing economic problems in Cyprus to attract Cypriot support. For some Cypriots joining the war serving in the army was the only way to provide for the livelihood of their family. In fact, Turkish Cypriots participated in the Great War against the Ottoman Empire. Furthermore, there were differences in terms of religious creed between Greek Cypriots and the British: the Greek Cypriots were Orthodox while the British people were Protestant. Hence, both Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots had some troubles about joining the Great War. Despite these differences, Greek and Turkish Cypriots set aside their national and religious feelings and were united in the same army to serve Great Britain. Another important aspect of the Cypriot Mule Corps lies in the fact that the Turkish Cypriots joined the British army not only against their former Sultan but also against their compatriots who migrated to Anatolia and were subsequently recruited to the Ottoman army. Overall, this article aims to illustrate this complex situation of the Cypriot Mule Corps from the standpoint of Cypriots and to show that people can ignore their national and religious identities when they have to. Keywords: Identity troubles, Cyprus, Cypriot Mule Corps, Muleteers.
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[2] THE CYPRIOT MULE CORP AND THE GREAT WAR
In many parts of the world there are giant monuments and shrines dedicated to the men and women who served in the Great War (1914 - 1918. In Australia we have a Shrine of Remembrance in nearly every town and city and even a public holiday to commemorate and remember the sacrifices made by so many during the First World War. There have been countless books published on the subject by many historians and academic scholars marking the Great War as one of the most significant events in the history of our planet.
Unfortunately, in Cyprus there are no monuments or plaques commemorating the Great War even though over 12,000 Cypriots served as muleteers. If not for the single-minded effort of Cypriots like Associate Professor Andrekos Varnava there would not be even a single book published about these brave Cypriot men who risked their lives to support the British armed forces at the Macedonian Front. In fact this article for Tales of Cyprus about the Cypriot Mule Corp was written largely because of the book 'Serving the Empire in the Great War' written by Varnava.
In June 1916, the French and British forces were stationed in Salonika ready to face the Bulgarian army in an attempt to liberate Serbia. The harsh conditions however and the difficult and treacherous terrain halted their advance through the Macedonian mountains. That is when General Mahon from the British Salonika Force requested the formation of a Cypriot Mule Corp.
When the Colonial government of Cyprus placed a ban on emigration (for men of military age), it forced many Cypriots to join the Mule Corp as the only way off the island and to make some money. According to Varnava, most were paid around three pounds and twelve piasters (grossi) a month plus clothes, cigarettes and food.
A quarter of the male population in Cyprus aged between eighteen and thirty-five decided to enlist and join the Cypriot Mule Corp. Most were single but around twenty-eight percent were married or engaged. Almost sixty percent came from the rural areas of Cyprus since poverty was one of the main reasons many men decided to sign up. A high proportion of those rural conscripts were Orthodox Christian while the Muslim conscripts (around 9 percent) came from the urban areas on the island such as Nicosia.
The muleteers did fifteen days basic training at a vast camp outside Famagusta before being transported in Egyptian cargo boats to Salonika.
The prospect of earning a steady wage was incentive enough however, some Cypriots signed up for the thrill of adventure. The financial stability that came with joining the Mule Corp attracted many first-born males who were often lumbered with the responsibility of taking care of their parents or grandparents or were required to contribute towards the marriage dowries of their sisters as was the custom at the time.
By the end of August 1916 over 2,200 Cypriot mules were purchased by the British Government and sent to Salonika to join the war effort there. A majority of the mules came from breeders in Platres and Nicosia. By the end of 1916 around 3000 mules, 1200 donkeys and 140 ponies were sent to Salonika. Some expects speculate that over 5000 mules and around 3000 donkeys were bought for military purposes.
Many Cypriot mule breeders profited and became very wealthy as a result of the Great War. The breeders would cross a donkey mare with a pony stallion to create a Cypriot mule. They would sell each animal for around twenty pounds. Standing between 13-14 hands high the Cypriot mule was regarded as the essential beast of burden and the ideal animal for pack transportation in the world.
With so many Cypriot men serving overseas with the British and Allied Forces the burden of looking after the family farm was left mainly to the elderly parents, wives and children. The removal of such large numbers of able-bodied men (rural workers and farmers) from the island made it difficult for many villagers to maintain a level of self-sufficiency. The agricultural resources in Cyprus were almost depleted by the military authorities who purchased great volumes of crops and food groups to feed their troops fighting in Salonika and the Balkan front. They bought almost the entire annual crop of carob beans to provide forage for the horses and pack animals. They bought 100,000 tons of wheat and barley, tens of thousands of goats and close to half a million eggs. The most important products that were bought and exported from Cyprus were potatoes, carobs (locust beans) and wood. The Forestry Department in Cyprus was the most impacted during the war with so many trees felled and sent to sawmills to meet the demand in Salonica and later Egypt. New sawmills were constructed as were roads and mountain paths.
The demand for cigarettes by the soldiers, officers and volunteers meant that tobacco began to be cultivated in Cyprus for the first time.
Many peasant farmers did in fact prosper and managed to pull themselves out of poverty as a result of selling their crops and produce to the military. Many families were able to pay off inherited debts for the first time in generations. As life became easier for many people living off the land because of the Great War, the German submarine blockade in the Mediterranean had a devastating impact on merchant shipping in the region. In 1916, the German submarines sank half a million tons of Allied shipping every month. Cyprus was forced to become self-sufficient. The cost of imported goods such as, petrol, coffee and sugar increased because of the German assault on shipping. Those who lived in towns or urban areas such as Nicosia struggled to cope with the high prices.
Before they could serve as muleteers, the Cypriot volunteers had to signed contracts that outlined the conditions of service and military law. For instance a muleteer could face execution if they were caught spying for the enemy. Fines and even imprisonment were imposed for misconduct. All volunteers were paid a monthly wage for their service during the war and received food and clothing (army uniform) for free.
The contracts also stipulated that the muleteers (and foremen) would not be entitled to any payment if they fell sick or were on leave. The most significant clause in the contract stated that no compensation would be paid to a muleteer's next of kin if they died or were wounded during their service.
With regards to salary, most volunteers agreed to have a portion of their pay sent back home to Cyprus to help their loved ones survive in their absence or to pay the interest of existing debts. Many mothers and wives whose sons and husbands had enlisted became increasingly dependent on the money sent home from abroad. Unfortunately some payments did not reach their intended destination and many families faced starvation and suffered extreme poverty. In many cases the money was overdue, held up and even stolen by government administrators or village officials. There is the sad case of muleteer Christodoulos Onoufriou who was sending around twenty-four pounds a year to his wife Athena only to discover when he returned to his village of Yeroskipou in Paphos that his wife had died and had not received any money.
The main role of the Cypriot muleteer was to transport supplies (weapons, ammunition, food, etc.) to the front line and return to their camp with any wounded or dead soldiers. The average load for a pack mule was around 160 pounds which was a ridiculous weight considering the treacherous terrain and steep ravines the poor animals had to navigate. It came as no surprise that many mules and donkeys were injured or died of fatigue. Quite a few mules became sick by contracting a contagious parasite called mange (scabies) resulting in severe skin lesions and scabs. The bitter winters and blizzards also affected the health of mules and their handlers. Many animals were also injured or killed by landmines, stray bullets and exploding shells and bombs.
The muleteers were also exposed and plagued by disease and illness such as cholera, malaria, meningitis and pneumonia. Many muleteers and officers were dismissed from duty for contracting venereal disease such as gonorrhea by visiting already infected prostitutes who worked at the many brothels located near their training camp at Famagusta. The men infected were sent to the quarantine station in Larnaca and had to pay for their treatment. The cost of quarantine was a further burden on the already dwindling savings of the unfortunate volunteers.
Vermin (fleas and lice), rheumatism, hernia and weak eyes were other main reasons why some Cypriot men were not chosen for the mule corp.
Most of the mule transportation was carried out at night making the trek along the narrow paths and steep ravines even more dangerous. Visibility was severely hampered for both man and beast with many experiencing falls or becoming stuck in swamps or icy rivers.
Hundreds of Cypriot mules were evacuated due to their poor physical condition. In the later stages of the Great War, the British and the Cypriot muleteers developed a better understanding of how to care for their animals.
After the war, the mules were either sold or transported to other areas of conflict such as Egypt and Constantinople while others were destroyed. No mules were returned to Cyprus.
Although the recruitment campaign and the advertising posters for the Cypriot Mule Corp promised adventure and a safe environment, a total of 177 Cypriots were killed during the Great War with many dying from disease and enemy fire.
I would like to thanks Andrekos Varnava for allowing me to paraphrase and use his book as reference for this article. I would also like to thank Andrekos for meeting with me to discuss key aspects of the Great War with regards to the Cypriot Mule Corp. I would like to take this opportunity to congratulate him on his incredible achievement in researching and publishing the first-ever comprehensive book about the Cypriots who served in the Great War.
I was also able to access information from the book Sweet and Bitter Island by Tabitha Morgan as well as online sources such as www.europeana.eu/portal/en and www.nationalarchives.gov.uk.
Once again, I would like to invite my readers today to shed more light on this forgotten and somewhat hidden chapter of Cypriot history.
Perhaps you had a grandfather or great, grandfather who served in the Great War. Perhaps you have a family story to share. Even better, if you have any documents or photos related to the Great War please do not hesitate to contact me.
conemmanuelle@talesofcyprus.com
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